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Multicultural VictimsWith the increasing diversity of the U.S. population there is growing awareness of the need for culturally-specific responses to victims' needs. Victim service providers need to be aware first of their own possible cultural biases and the fact that others have widely varying responses to trauma. Providers must then be willing to learn about various cultures, to attend trainings aimed at developing multicultural sensitivity, and to mold their treatment practices accordingly. Dr. Brian Ogawa states that "the effectiveness of counseling for minority victims of crime can only derive from the cultural appropriateness of the treatment being offered. There must be a correspondence between how the victim identifies the most important aspects of a crime's impact and how these are addressed...." (Ogawa, 1990, p.253). Because adequate treatment is often precluded by lack of training and other resources, victim service practitioners need to develop a network of contacts in the field, information about organizations, and access to published sources of information (Ohio Coalition, 1991; "Cross- Cultural Service Delivery," 1992). Aspects of cultural diversity that should be considered include ethnicity, language, nationality, sexual orientation, migration experience, disabilities, age, gender, economic considerations and educational status. Victim service providers should identify and validate the cultural background of a victim, paying attention in particular to the following issues:
It is common for minority ethnic groups currently residing in the United States to share traits such as lower economic and educational status, as well as language barriers. They suffer from racism and poor police response to crimes. Victim service providers must become acquainted with characteristics of specific groups, although keeping in mind differences among sub-groups and individuals. This section discusses basic generalizations about certain major groups for which the majority of the literature has been written. The crime rate among African Americans is higher than any other ethnic group, and blacks suffer more violent crimes and receive greater injury than do non-blacks. Black women are more often raped. Blacks tend to have strong family and community ties and religious identification, although many distrust the dominant culture. Problems tend to be addressed within the family unit until they become very serious (Ohio Coalition, 1991; "Cross-Cultural Service Delivery," 1992; Whitaker, 1990; Hamilton, 1989; Ogawa, 1990). As the fastest-growing ethnic group in the U.S., Hispanics experience more violent crime and robberies than non-Hispanics, mostly because they tend to be younger, poorer, and more urban. Many do not speak English and have suffered oppression as immigrants as well as employment discrimination. Most have strong Catholic beliefs, solid family and community ties, and traditional attitudes about gender roles. Cultural traits include extended family support, concrete life outlook and respect for authority that uses silence and avoidance of eye contact (Ohio Coalition, 1991; "Cross-Cultural Service Delivery," 1992; Bastian, 1990; Hamilton, 1989; Ogawa, 1990; Bastian, 1990). Asian-Americans are predominately foreign-born. Many refugees suffered violent oppression and may distrust authority. In the United States, where they are increasingly visible due to recent high immigration, Asians commonly suffer bigotry and hate crimes. Asian women may be more likely to put family ahead of individual interests and less willing to discuss sexual incidents (Ohio Coalition, 1991; "Cross-Cultural Service Delivery," 1992; United States Commission on Civil Rights, 1992; Hamilton, 1989). "Most Asians are taught to be task-oriented. Therapy sessions for Asians should therefore delineate goals, assign practical exercises, and should occur over a brief rather than extended period" (Ogawa, 1990, p.274). The Native American often receives his or her strength from a harmony with the environment. They may rely upon shamans for spiritual or concrete guidance (i.e., agricultural advice) as well as medicinal cures. Mystical powers associated with the shamans, and hence relevant to those who are served by the shamans, are dependent upon specific geographic locations. This is one illustration of the connection between the Indian and land not thoroughly understood by Western thought (Ogawa, 1990). In addition to expanding victim services to include culturally sensitive services for minority groups, two additional groups of victims should not be overlooked: the elderly and children. The elderly suffer proportionately less crime, but usually suffer more serious consequences due to physical vulnerability, economic dependence, and isolation. The elderly are significantly more likely to report their victimizations. As the elderly are the fastest growing segment of the U.S. population, victim service providers may have an increasing number of elderly clientele, and thus require education about this population group (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1981; Whitaker, 1987; Bachman, 1992). Children are particularly vulnerable to sexual crimes. They suffer on-going abuse, including prostitution and pornography, as well as one-time assault, and commonly face obstacles to receiving help. Only a small percentage of crimes against children is reported. The following are some of the reactions to victimization:
Again, these are generalizations which are intended to maximize the understanding of diversity and to undermine negative stereotyping attitudes. Ogawa provides the context for the service provider to benefit from generalizations or traits: "The minority client is best served when the counselor empathizes with what is culturally and individually relevant to the client's situation" (Ogawa, 1990, p.202). "Trauma affects the whole person and not just one aspect of life. Different cultures therefore have unique 'idioms of distress' to publicly communicate subjective discomfort" (Ogawa, 1990, p.255). Ogawa suggests, for victim service facilities lacking the staff to mirror the ethnicity of its clientele, using "minority volunteers, a systematic referral system, protocols to guide non-minority staff, periodic training, the availability of culturally sensitive written materials, and on-call translators" (Ogawa, 1990, p. 260). He suggests providing a step-by-step guide to start a culturally appropriate program including:
Bachman, Ronet. (1992). Elderly Victims. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice. "Bureau of Justice Statistics Report: Crime and the Elderly." December, 1981. Bastian, Lisa D. (1990). Hispanic Victims. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice. Young, Marlene A. (1992). "Cross-Cultural Service Delivery". The Road to Victim Justice: Mapping Strategies for Service, A Series of Regional Training Conferences. National Organization for Victim Assistance and National Center for Victims of Crime. Hamilton, Jean A. (1987). "Emotional Consequences of Victimization and Discrimination in 'Special Populations' of Women." Women's Disorders, 12(1): 35-51. Ogawa, Brian. (1990). Color of Justice: Culturally Sensitive Treatment of Minority Crime Victims. Sacramento: Office of the Governor, State of California. Ohio Coalition on Sexual Assault. (1991). "Guidelines for Providing Culturally Appropriate Crisis Intervention." Columbus. United States Commission on Civil Rights. (1992). "Civil Rights Issues Facing Asian Americans in the 1990s." Whitaker, Catherine J. (1990). Black Victims. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice. Whitaker, Catherine J. (1987). Elderly Victims. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice. Whitcomb, Debra. (1992). When the Victim is a Child, second edition. Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice. For additional information, please contact: National Institute Against Prejudice and Violence Human Rights Resource Center Southern Poverty Law Center Three Feathers Associates National Indian Justice Center All rights reserved. Copyright © 1992 by the National Center for Victims of Crime. This information may be freely distributed, provided that it is distributed free of charge, in its entirety and includes this copyright notice.
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